Labeling theory arose from the study of deviant behavior in the 1950's and 1960's and was a rejection of consensus perspective or structural functionalism. Labeling theory also called social reaction theory, focuses on the tendency of majorities to negatively label minorities or those seen as deviant from norms. The theory of symbolic interactionism has the closest affinity with labeling theory, and symbolic-interaction analysis. Labeling theory is closely related to social-construction of reality. Labeling theory is concerned with how the self-identity and behavior of an individual is influenced by others in their society. Labeling theory theorist, Frank Tannenbaum's main concept was the dramatization of evil.
Tannenbaum's Labeling theory argued that the process of tagging, defining, labeling and, describing any individual out for special treatment becomes a way of stimulating, and evoking the very traits that are complained of. Under Labeling theory a person actually ends up becoming what he is described as being or what he is labeled as. Labeling theory is concerned with how the self-identity and behavior of individuals may be determined or influenced by the terms used to describe or classify them, and is associated with the concept of a self-fulfilling prophecy and stereotyping.
According to labeling theory deviance is not inherent to an act. Labeling theory focuses on the tendency of majorities to negatively label minorities or those seen as deviant from standard cultural norms. Attention is now being devoted to informal labeling theory, like labeling by parents, peers and teachers. Informal labeling has a greater effect on subsequent crime than official labeling.
In Labeling Theory: Empirical Tests by Joseph Murray, Ross Matsueda chronicles the early history of the theory. Fred Markowitz then reviews labeling theory research as applied to mental illness. Francis T. Cullen and Cheryl Lero Jonson discuss the relationship between labeling theory and correctional rehabilitation.
The main idea of looking glass self is that people define themselves based on how society perceives them. Charles Horton Cooley's concept of the looking glass self is very important to labeling theory and its approach to a person's acceptance of labels as attached by society.
Lemert was as the founder of the "societal reaction approach and social reaction theory. "societal reaction" approach distinguishes between primary deviance (where individuals do not see themselves as deviant) and secondary deviance (where individuals accept a deviant status). Societal reaction theorists claim that the process of defining and suppressing deviance is of vital importance to social solidarity.
Informal Labeling
According to labeling theory, informal labeling is not simply a function of official
labeling. Informal labeling is also influenced by the delinquent behavior and by the
position enjoyed by the individual in society.
If individuals believe that others see them as delinquents and trouble-makers,
then they are more likely to justify this perception and engage in delinquency.
Labeling theory rejected this approach and claimed that deviance is not a way of
behaving, but is a name or label stuck on a particular form of behaviour. Thus
according to labeling theory deviance is not something inherent in the behavior,
but is an outcome of how individuals or their behavior are labeled.
How does the label come to be applied to specific behaviors and to particular individuals? This question leads to an examination of the actions of people who label others such as, psychiatrists, coroners, police, judges and juries. Those labeled as criminals will be viewed by others as criminals increasing the likelihood of subsequent crime for several basic reasons. Labeled individuals find that conventional people are reluctant to associate with them, increasing the likelihood of them associating with other criminals.
Criminal justice system could be "casting the net" (net-widening) of social control too widely. Net-widening is inherently criminogenic. Being a "criminal" becomes a person's master status controling the way they are identified in public. Also called the symbolic interactionist viewpoint, crime is defined by reference to the symbols and meanings that people communicate to one another.
Becker coined the term "moral entrepreneur" to describe individuals who lead campaigns to outlaw certain behaviors.
An Empirical Test of
Labeling Theory Using
Longitudinal Data -
Melvin C. Ray, William R. Downs
Article uses panel data and multiple regression of
follow-up on baseline variables to test direction of causality among drug use behavior,
informal labels, and also formal labels. Results partially supported by the labeling
theory proposition of secondary deviance among males. Among females, drug use behavior was
causally prior to labels, which contradicts secondary deviance. Thus theories must be
tested separately on each sex as well as on samples including both sexes.
Official Labeling, Criminal Embeddedness, and Subsequent Delinquency - A
Longitudinal Test of Labeling Theory- Jon Gunnar Bernburg,
Marvin D. Krohn, and Craig J. Rivera.
The impact of formal criminal labeling on involvement in deviant social networks and
increased likelihood of subsequent delinquency. Labeling theory posits formal criminal
intervention should affect the individual's immediate social networks. This formal labeling may ultimately increase involvement in
subsequent deviance. The authors find that juvenile justice intervention positively
affects subsequent involvement in delinquency through the medium of involvement in deviant
social groups.
Social Control in China:
Applications of the Labeling Theory and the Reintegrative Shaming Theory -
Xiaoming Chen, Law School of Xiamen Univ, Xiamen, Fujian.
The article scrutinizes the implications of labeling theory and reintegrative shaming
theory and tests their sensitivity to cross-cultural differences. The evidence presented
here tends to support the reintegrative shaming theory rather than labeling theory.
Labeling Theory and Delinquency Policy - An Experimental Test
MALCOLM W. KLEIN, Univ of Southern California
Propositions endemic to labeling theory, and variables particularly relevant to these
propositions, are combined into a guiding paradigm. Components of labeling paradigm are
tested in an experimentally controlled police diversion project.
Peers' Rejection as a Possible Consequence of Official Reaction to Delinquency in
Chinese Society - LENING ZHANG, State University of New York at Albany.
Drawing on labeling theory, this study examined peers' attitudinal responses to the
official label of delinquency.
Victims of crime and labeling theory: a parallel process? - Kenney
J.S.
Labeling theory tends to focus largely on the offender. Explores the potential of
extending the interactionist perspective on deviance to the experiences of victims of
crime. I outline a parallel labeling process for victims in which differential social
reactions to this status have an impact on the behaviors, adjustment, and identities of
the individuals concerned.
Differential Labeling of Mental Illness by Social
Status: A New Look at an Old Problem - Thoits, Peggy A. Contrary to
labeling theory, members of lower status groups are not consistently overrepresented among
those who have been hospitalized against their will. I do not confirm a central tenet of labeling theory here, but the negative
consequences of labeling and stigma continue to be well-supported
in the literature.
Labeling Theory in Deviance Research: A Critique and Reconsideration -
Nanette J. Davis.
The labeling, or interactionist, theory of deviance is reviewed and critically evaluated.
CRITICAL ASSESSMENT OF LABELING IN
THE JUVENILE JUSTICE SYSTEM
Journal: JUSTICE SYSTEM JOURNAL Volume:4 Issue:1 (FALL 1978) G L Albrecht, M H
Albrecht.
The origins and forms of labeling theory are presented and the status of labeling as a
theory assessed.
Labeling theory views the reaction of society and particularly criminal justice agencies
to nonconforming behavior to be a significant cause for the reinforcement.
Research to determine the degree to which labeling theory is substantiated.
Misunderstanding labeling theory perspectives (from deviant
interpretations, 1979, by David Downes and Paul Rock) K Plummer.
Criticisms of the labeling theory of social deviance. Changing status has been
accorded to labeling theory. Labeling theory should focus on establishing the characteristics,
sources, and conditions of labels as well as the consequences of labeling. Labeling theory should
not be equated with a theory or a proposition but should be seen as a perspective in
deviancy research.
Discovering meaning through the act of labeling.
Labeling here, is a way of saying that the article is about something without even reading it. A lot of our reading gets judged by the act of labelling. To show that you have read an article, all you have to do is say that this article is leftist or rightist and it is as if all meaning then becomes transparent. The motivation for labelling is not to learn and understand but to attack without justification. It is a symptom of how a literate people can become dangerously illiterate when labelling replaces understanding.